India’s cultural traditions have their in diverse sources embedded in the life style of various pre-and proto-historic communities occupying different parts of the sub-continent in the various periods of their existence. Despite high antiquity of several archaeological finds, one has to admit that the earliest recorded references of India’s cultural philosophy and ideological concepts are found only in the textual data of Rgveda, which show an already developed stage of thought. The importance of Vedic philosophy and religious concepts especially those defining the form of divinities lies in the fact that they preserve in them the seeds of later Hinduism to a considerable extent.
The Rgveda contains references to various types of divinities which have been classified into three broad groups viz., (i) Terrestrial deities like Prthivi, Soma, Agni, (ii) Atmospheric gods like Indra, Vayu, Maruts, Parjanya, and (iii) Heavenly divinities like Varuna, Dyaus, Asvins, Surya, Savitr, Mitra, Pusana and Visnu. Of these the last five were regarded as different phases of sun’s movements. Varuna, who has been extolled in many hymns, is also associated with the concept of Rta, i.e. the cosmic and, oral order.
The Rgveda mentions some goddess too like Prthivi, Usas or the dawn, Ratri, Ila Bharati or Sarasvati. A few gods like Dyava-Prthivi (i.e. the sky and the earth) are vitally significant for latre iconographic development. To propitiate these gods the Rgvedic people made offerings of milk, ghee grains, etc. through sacrificial oblations and chanted hymns in their praise which, undoubtedly. Suggest presence of the elements of Bhakti (deep devotional urge) in the Vedic religion.
The present work is conditioned by a kind of unconventional approach to the study of Vedic elements of iconic forms from time to time to meet the demand of the people. In her view these developments are well attested to by the literature of historical times, e.g. the Smrtis and the Puranas.
According to Chawla the early idea of image-making can be traced back in the hymns of the Rgveda particularly in the poetic imagery of early Vedic seers. She agrees that most of the Vedic deities, no doubt, originally represented the forces of nature but in the couse of time, during the Rgvedic age itself, she feels that iconic concepts in regard to at least some divinities had already come into vogue.
The author has also located and analysed certain Vedic terms prrserving in them clues pertaining to bodily features of some deities. The representation of form as reflected in the expressions like rupani pimsatu and rupam sukrtam, is an indication of some kind of artistic activity in Rgvedic times. Perhaps emergence of the concept of Tvastr, the divine craftsman/artist, was a result of constantly growing creative urge of Rgvedic societies.
Dr. Chawla views the whole growth of Hindu iconography as a continuous process of development from the period of the Rgveda onwards under the cover of religious philosophies. Yet, she does not deny the role of Indus civilization and external mythological import.
Jyotsna Chawla further invites our attention to the iconographic parallelism between the concept of Dyava-Prthivi, the eternal parents, and the one reflected in the unified form available in the Puranic iconography of Ardhanarisvara. She traces the growth of the iconic forms of Rgvedic deities like Siva, Surya, Some, Yama, Asvins, etc. in the later periods when the Puranas were compiled. She has beautifully analysed the Vedic symbolism and the attributes held by various gods in the form of vajra, pasa, danda, sruk and sruva in an logical manner.
T HE present study which I have read with care and interest is a bold step on the part of Dr. Jyotsna Chawla having taken up the far most region of Vedic icons, which is an untrodden and unexplored field. Such attempts deserve appreciation.
The deity or devata belongs to a divine life. Etymologically also the word deva is from The celestial being which shines in the heaven and bestows human life with all blessings. However the deities in the Rgveda act with human interest. They are also benevolent for public life. .
In fact a worldly power of a hero leads to supernaturalism. When we come across with the celestial deeds of the deities we like to place them on a high mount. This obviously gives them a status of having a celestial abode. It is quite possible that those deities who do not appear physi- cally can inspire devotees to memorise their prominent features and distinctive qualities from those of other deities resulting an evolution of forms with their particular garbs in the minds of devotees. Either at the time of reciting prayers or offering oblations in the sacrifices the Vedic sages invariably desired that the deities should be present on such occasions.
Icons were conceived first in the minds of devotees with fancy to imitate the real deity, It was also possible that the icons or were not treated as inanimate things. Although we don't find any exact evidence of installing any statue or worshipping any deities as some of us do today. The conception of incarnation of a deity also is originated with the presence of its bene- volent acts. The excellent powers of a hero are natural, however they appear to be supernatural in the minds of his followers. Thus mysticism also becomes a part of life. This mystic experience had given the opportunity to the earliest Vedic society for enjoying to the spiritual rapture which became the property of the society, This inner experience was the most important factor which inspired a direct association between the deity and the devotee. It was the dawn of a unique experience of Vedic people who had the privilege of welcoming and praying Vedic gods, The idols seem to be the later invention. The idols or icons appeared when the real deities disappeared. The idols pre- served the special features of the departed deities. Their occasional appearance in the sacrifices had also been a factor which inspired devotees to offer oblation to the real power incarnated. .
Thus we see the natural phenomena inspires a seer to experience spiritual power resulting in the mysticism in the common peoples' mind. The seers being Yogins did see the abstract in a concrete form. This privilege was not enjoyed by the rest of the people. It was necessary for the devotees in general to conceive the forms of Yajna-cult as well as the idols in the public perfor- mances. Of course the idea of catching the sublimity and power into a small icon was only possi- ble with the consent of Vedic seers. It was also a natural result of the deification of the entire universe. The idols have been liable to have changed forms, however the spirit and the loftiness they represented in the sacrifices were more appreciated by the devotees in later period. In a way, the symbols have become prominent with the forms peculiar to respective deities. .
Even the anthropological investigations show how such symbols have been chosen by earliest man for his worship. The development of idols for worshipping gods could be conceived by the Vedic people. This and other conceptions are resurrected and these fossils of human mind could attain the sublimity collaborating to spiritual experience of Vedic seers in respect of Vedic deities. Later on we see bow the idols have played a prominent role in the Bhakti movement in India. .
NDIAN civilization in all its stages of progress had its start in the Rgvedic period. The influ- ence which this literature has exerted on the progress of mankind through the ages, is tremendous, since it touches a vast period which covers its history. All the Puranas, all the Dharma-sastras, the various systems of philosophy, grammar, music, physics, art and architec- ture trace their origin in the Vedic period. .
The Indian iconography cannot be studied thoroughly without the study of the Rgvedic deities. The iconic forms which are preserved in temples and museums even today look back to the Rgvedic version for their origin. Moreover the study here is correlated with the Pratima Laksanas given in the Mahapuranas. The material recorded in the Puranas comes from the Vedic stock, although the actual compilation of that material in the form of Puranas might have taken place pretty late. That is why the rules given by the Puranas on icons can be considered as the ancient information traditionally coming through the generations in the houses of sculptors.
The Rgveda has been taken up as the base for the development of the conception of religious and social thought. The deities of the Rgveda underwent changes from time to time. The icons of these deities became popular in the age of Mohapuranas, The intervening period of Brahmanic literature and other books like Brhaddevata, Nirukta, Sarvanukramani, Nitimanjari, etc., served as traditional link between the two great periods of the Rgveda and the Mahapurnnas. The study of all these literatures conclude that the mind of the Vedic sages has been manifesting through the ages in the form of icons. There is no deviation from what they thought and conceived in the earliest Vedic age. The icons of the different times reflect the tendencies of that particular period. The expressions on the face of the icon also reveal the mind of the artist who at the same time is influenced by the tendencies of that particular period. Through these images we come to know about the ideas, feelings and thoughts about the religious development of a particular time.
The book has been divided into six chapters. The first chapter gives the religious origin of the art of iconography in India. The elaborate descriptions found in the Rgveda about the different limbs of the deities, cultivated a fertile field for this science to grow.
The second chapter gives purely the Rgvedic representation of the deities. What was the con- ception about the deities at that time is the main concern here.
The third chapter gives the treatment of the Rgvedic deities according to the Brahmanic litera- ture and other books like Brhaddevata, Nirukta, Sarvanukramani, Nitimanjari, etc. These literature served as a traditional link between the two great periods of the Rgveda and Mahapuranas, In fact we find the living cultural and religious trends which even survive today. Also, we find the influence of Rgvedie par excellence on the art of non-Vedic branches of faiths like Buddhist and Jain followers.
Chapters 4 and 5 deal with the deities on the basis of Mahapuranas and their relative icono- graphical traits found in the icons of temples and museums. Some of them have been illustrated here. In this age, the manifold deities of the Rgveda were reduced to three main gods of Hindu- ism - Visnu, Siva and Brahma. Today in every part of the country we find icons of these deities being worshipped.
It may be true that the non-Vedic sects were opposed to Vedic sacrifices and rituals, but they could not detach themselves from their past in respect of their virtuous basic principles. Thus we can safely say that the later Buddhist and others also are grateful to the Vedic conception of deities basically and installing Pratimas for offering worship. The aesthetic element of the Rgvedic deities was without any interruption and hesitation survived in the hands of non-Vedic followers and the common art was not challenged by any preacher at any point in school of the Rgvedic conception.
Chapter 6 deals with the Vedic and non-Vedic features of the deities. In this connection the features of Indus valley civilization have also been taken into account. The figures of human beings and animals on the seals of Indus valley civilization seem to have connection with the Rgvedic god Rudra and the Puranic god Siva and his symbol bull. Besides this the two appendices deal with the deities which still remain and survive in art and details of the deity on the basis of iconometry.
The thorough study of the subject leads to the conclusion that the early deities with their pecu- liar features were known to the common people, because, they were directly taken up from the Vedic stock of folklore. Popular heroes from the Vedic folklore, reappeared as deities in the Rgveda. There were many benefactors of humanity who were taken as the incarnations of God like, Rama, Krsna, Buddha and Christ. They lived in this world among men and set an example of noble life to the people by their own virtuous life. They appear in this world for the removal of some temporary evil, for a define period and for the definite purpose of that time being. They are illustrated in the form of incarnations in the Puranic age. The natural phenomenon, personi- fied as gods in the Rgvedic period are none else than the life-giving principles which enact in every new creation.
This book explores the Hindu iconography from the Vedic to recent period in time and space that would dispel many misconceptions. The first few articles deal with Agni, the fire of Vedas. The fire has two inherent powers, the consuming heat energy and illuminating-beneficial energy, which they called on one hand as Rudra and on the other Vishnu. Similarly Rudra is like the father and the benevolent energy of the same fire, insuperable, is called mother devi Parvati, the male and the female, in one and the same form as Ardhanari. Most of the important iconographic visualizations arise from such syncretic forms that are dealt with in this volume. For example the concept of Linga or Varaha, gives so many layers that are properly focused that would come as revelations. At another level some individual manifestations like Andhakasuravadha or Nataraja are rooted in Vedic understanding of darkness and light. The writings of some that there was no worship of feminine power in the Vedic age are shown as pedestrian, worthy of outright rejection. Similarly some hold that the Muruga Kartikeya is exclusive and the earliest god of the Tamil is disproved and shown here as a Sanskrit word "Mrgya" in Prakrit form. The origin of Rama and Krishna and their place in the chronological perspective is given in detail with epigraphical evidence and disproved some of the abysmal ignorance of some professorial claimants. Each article with references and notes is thought provoking, original and linked to the factual utterances which are absolutely necessary for those who seek proper approach to the subject.
Dr. R Nagaswamy (b. 1930) is MA in Sanskrit Language and Literature and PhD in Art and History with Sakta Cult in Tamil Nadu. His fields of specialization are Indian Art and Aesthetics, Architecture, Iconography, Bronzes, Numismatics, Epigraphy, Music, Dance etc. He served as Curator for Art and Archaeology, Government Museum (1959-62), Assistance special Officer, Archaeology (1963-65), the First Director of Archaeology, Tamil Nadu (1966-88), and after retirement he served as the first Vice Chancellor of Kanchipuram University. A versatile scholar, he has published several books in English, Tamil and Sanskrit. An epigraphist and paleographer, his articles have been published in 24 languages of the world by UNESCO. He has written several dance dramas and presented them all over the world. Presently, he is specializing in South-East Asian Art.
I could not think of a better introduction to this work than the sayings of the Paramahamsa Parivrajakacharya. Mahaswamikal, the Senior Sankaracharya Swamikal of Kanchi Kamakoti Pitha who lived amongst us for nearly one hundred years as an embodiment of India's Life. They open up our vision of our approach to Indian godhood. His sayings on the nature of Vedic religion sums up the True spirit of Hindu thought and I begin the work with his saying which will enlighten the reader on the synthetic nature of Indian thoughts.
Maharishi Aurobindo wrote that "In India, the high Vedic beginning, the Great spiritual stir of the Upanishads, the wide flood of, Buddhism, Vedanta, Sankhya, the Puranic, and Tantiric religions, the flowering of Saivism and Vaisnavism, in the Southern kingdoms have come in on a surge, of spiritual light and a massive or intense climbing of the religious or the religio-philosophic mind to its own heights, its noblest realties, its largest riches of version and experience. It was in such periods of intellect, thought, poetry, the arts and the material life flowered into splendour, in the Foundations of Indian Culture". The Aurobindo Ashram, Pondichery, (1921 and reprinted in 1988 pp. 80-91).
The Great Maharishi of Indian Art History, Ananda Coomaraswamy, in his introduction to "Study of the Vedas" wrote that "The Sacred literature of India is available to most of us only in translation made by Scholars, trained in liturgical rather than in Metaphysics, and it has been expounded and explained or as I should say "explained away" mainly by scholars rarely trained with the assumption of naturalist, and the Anthropologist, scholars whose intellectual capacities, have been too much inhibited by their own powers of observations that they can no longer distinguish the reality with appearance, the supermal sun of metaphysics from the physical sun of their own experience." (Ananda Coomaraswamy in 'Perceptions of the Vedas'ed by Vidya Nivas Misra, IGNCA and Manohar, New Delhi, 2000, Introduction).
Dr. Stella Kramrisch, the greatest exponent of the Hindu temple in her introduction to the 'Hindu temple' says "The attempt is made here to set up the Hindu temple conceptually, from the foundation to the final. Its structure is rooted in Vedic tradion, and primeval modes of buildings have contributed their shapes. The principles are given in the sacred texts of India and the structural rules in the treatises on architecture. They are carried out in the shrines which still stand through out the country, and which were built in many varieties and styles, over a millennium and a half from the fifth cent. AD.
The purpose of the Hindu temple is shown by its form. It is the concrete symbol of reintegration and coheres with the rhythm of the thought imaged in its carvings and laid out in its proportion. Their perfection is a celebration of all the rites enacted during the building of the temple from the ground to its pinnacle. Nothing that is seen on the temple is left unsaid in the verbal tradition nor is any of the detail arbitrary or superfluous. Each has definite place and is part of the whole." (Stella Kramrisch, "Exploring India's Sacred Art", edited by Barbara Stoler Miller, IGNCA, New Delhi 1994, p. 20).
This book may be said to be the result of inspiration I derived from the sagacious statements of the Rishis, the bright luminaries in the horizon of Indian cultural ethos, to look for the magic of the original sound of the Vedas, aided by the secondary help of translations, to penetrate into the secrets of Indian art and architecture. Soon I began to realize I learnt more from the Sound of the Vedas, than from the meaning of translation. It has convinced me that nothing can give us greater experience than the Original and that change totally our perceptions of our thought on Hindu religion and iconography and I am also convinced that every classical concept is rooted in the Vedas. Does it mean, there is a vacuum before the Vedas. Certainly not but to explain them with evidence one has to enter the slippery space of speculation and nothing can be achieved by that enquiry. I am quite happy to stand on the solid ground.
Most of the articles in this volume are either on Vedic studies, or trace the roots of well known images of Hindu iconography. They show the Vedic tradition of adoring the nature's energies and are meant for the universal well being. The later worship is a linear development of these Vedic concepts and rituals. Two types of worship are recognized in ritual texts which are classified as worship for ones own self called parartha puja and the other for the community or the world called Parcirtha puja. All temple worship fall under the later category.
The articles on Linga, Siva, Balarama, Rama and Krsna deal with concepts chronologically. The origin of Karthikeya, the Goddesses, Varaha, are shown to have developed with their origin in Vedic ideas. The vague claims by some that many of them are from non Vedic sources are illustrated with speculative means. I have shown the Tamil Society was as much Vedic from its historical period as any other region of India. The articles on Indra worship in Tamilnadu from Silappatikaram included in this volume demonstrate that point. There is enough scope for enlarging each article into a full independent thesis. There is a need to remove many distortions in the present stage. An objective handling is desideratum. It is hoped that this work will stimulate more such studies in the future.
**Contents and Sample Pages**
The Indian religious traditions consider the Vedas to be of divine origin and Apaurseya or those which were not composed by any human effort. These Vedas deal with various subjects besides discussing the several gods and goddesses and other religious beliefs. Indeed it is not only the earliest body of the religious beliefs, preserved in the literary form, but it also represents a more primitive phase of thought than is recorded in any other literature. It can, moreover, be traced step-by-step through the various stages of development. It is, finally the source of the modern Hinduism which can thus be historically followed up to its. origin, throughout a period of well over thousands of years. As natural result of its value to the investigator of the religious thought in general, the study of Vedic religion gave birth in the later half of the nineteenth century, when these sacred books also attracted the attention of the foreign scholars.
The ideology of the Vedic literature hovers round the Vedic gods, the fire sacrifices, and the sacrificial animals, Indeed the concept of the Vedic gods is quite' an original one and is based on the forces of nature primarily, though in the later texts several other factors like magic and other tantrik practices entered the Vedic ideology. The Atharvaveda indeed happens to be the spokesman for such magical practices. During the initial Vedic literature the gods like Rudra, Visnu, Prajapati and Indra, the most powerful of the Vedic gods, were conceived in abstract form and not in human form, nor were their iconographical features prescribed. It was, therefore, left to the imagination of the worshippers. to adore them in a suitable form.
The gods and the universe happened to be the creation of Supreme soul, irrespective of their being Indra, Agni, Mitra, Varuna, Asvanikumaras, Soma, Surya or Prthivi. The all pervading Supreme Soul was considered to be eternal and everlasting. Indeed these gods were considered to be the forerunners of the later Brahmanical cult wherein they were adopted in one form or the other.
Let us take the case of Visnu who happened to be enjoying a somewhat insignificant position in the Vedic literature, but in the Rgveda, he was described to be an all pervading god. This quality was hardly available with any other early Vedic gods. In the Brahamnic literature one could peep into his performances as Trivikrama form taking the three strides in order to measure the universe. This episode has been believed to be the earliest reference to the incarnations of Visnu. But even at this stage he was never described to possess four arms or his attributes. The earliest attribute held by him possibly was the gada or the club when he was known as Gadadhara. It may be recalled here that Visnu was also found represented in a second century B.C. inscribed sculpture from Malhar (Madhya Pradesh) in which he is holding a gada in both the hands. This goes on to testify that the earliest specimen of Visnu appears in his Gadadhara form. Now with the passage of time, the Puranas developed stories about his other attributes like samkha, cakra and lotus. The Puranas testify that Visnu received the samkha after the killing of the demon of the same name in the deep ocean. The cakra, however, is stated to be originally with Siva and Visnu had to meditate upon Siva to receive it from him for the killing of a demon. Siva obliged Visnu, after putting the devotion of Visnu to test. Siva as cakradanamurti is therefore quite a popular motif in Indian plastic art, particularly in the medieval period. As far as the lotus is concerned, nothing definite about its being the attribute of visnu could be said, but the Puranas contain a story according to which the four-faced Brahma emerged seated over a lotus, the stalk of which emerged from the navel of Visnu.
Brahma on the other hand, was mostly known in the early Vedic literature as Prajapati, who was responsible for the creation of the universe. But his form of having four faces and four arms developed at a considerable later date, also earning him the title of Pitamaha. It has not been possible to trace out the reason for the development of this type image as an old one or the grandfather. But possibly it was due to his being constantly associated with the creation.
Siva was known as such in the Rgveda where he was popularly conceived as Rudra in an abstract form and the word Siva appears only once in the Rgveda. All his iconographical features, making him five faced, four armed, marriage with Sati and the Parvati, with the bull as his vehicle developed at quite a late stage in the ancient Indian literature and art.
Vrsapakapi, happened to be a monkey god in the Vedic literature, who enjoyed the proximity of Indra, but was adopted in the subsequent times as Mahakapi or Hanuman as per the evidence of the Brahma Purana.
Ganapati, no doubt appears in the Vedic texts, but he is not to be found as Ganesa, the son of Siva of the later Puranic period. He, no doubt, happens to be chief of the ganas, but the term Ganapati has also been used for Rudra or Siva. Therefore, the Puranic Ganapati entirely is the developed form of Vedic Ganapati.
Similarly, Indra, the so powerful a Vedic god, in due course of time was relegated to the insignificant position of a Dikpala in the art and literature of the later period. Similar is the position with the other Vedic deities. Indeed ever since the dawn of civilization on earth, several deities have appeared in human, composite or even animal forms, dominating the Indian religious thought in one or the other forms, while some of them disappeared from the Indian religious scene as rapidly as they had mushroomed, some of them disappeared with the passage of time, and still others came down to the modern times in an improved or modified form.
It may be recalled that the Rgveda was originally spread over together with the Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda into over a thousand Sakhas. The study of the Rgveda started from Rsi Paila. The hymns were composed in the form of metres forming the texts. On the basis of the Mahabhasya the number of the Rgveda's Sakhas has been counted as twenty-one. But currently only Sakala, Baskala, Asvalayana, Samkhyayana and Mandukayana only are available. Inspite of the fact that except Sakala, the Samhitas of the other Sakhas are not available, but they are found mentioned at several places. Some of them find mention in the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and others in the Srout Sutras. Therefore the existence of the five Sakhas is confirmed.
Date of the Vedas The knowledge of Indo-Aryans is based on the evidence of the Vedic literature, of which the chief constituents are the four collections known as the Rgveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, but none of them has been properly dated. On linguistic grounds, the language of the Rgveda, the oldest Veda may be said to be the oldest of all and scholars have given it the date of 1000 BC, but its constituents may be-and certainly are in the oldest parts-of much more ancient date and the latest parts, resembling the Atharvaveda, consisting of charms etc. are surely of much later date. The Rgveda is neither historical nor a heroic poem but mainly a collection of hymns by a number of priestly families recited or chanted by them with appropriate solemnity at sacrifices to gods. Naturally, it is poor in historical data. The Samaveda hardly counts at all as an independent text. The Yajurveda, on the other hand (if the Brahmanas pertain to the Black Yajurveda, are left out of account), are nothing but the collections of short magic spells used by certain class of priests at the sacrifices. For the history of the Indian people of the Vedic age, the Atharvaveda is certainly most important of the four Vedas, describing, as it does, the popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folks.
The Vedic Religion Before embarking on the topic of the Vedic gods, it would be proper to have a bird' s eye view of the Vedas and the Vedic religion, the geographical distribution and the mode of life of the Vedic people. Broadly speaking the Vedic religion comprises of, besides the Vedic deities, of mythology and the magic. Religion means on the one hand, the body of the beliefs entertained by men regarding the divine or the supernatural power, and on the other hand, that sense of dependence on those powers which is expressed by word in the form of prayer and praise, or by both in the form of rituals and sacrifices. Mythology means the body of myths or stories which give an account of gods and heroes describing their origin and surroundings, their deeds and activities. Mythology is thus included in, though not co-extensive with, that aspect of religion which is concerned with belief. Magic on the other hand means, that body of practices which instead of seeking to gain the goodwill of the divine benevolent powers by acts of worship is largely directed against the hostile agencies.
The religion of the four Vedas regarded as a whole is connected with the worship of the gods largely representing the personification of the powers of nature, the propitiation of the demonic beings comes only to a limited extent within its sphere. The oldest and the most important of the four Vedas is the Rgveda, from which considerable portions of the others are honoured, is a collection of hymns containing a large mythological element. These hymns are mostly the innovations of gods meant to accompany the oblation of-Soma juice and the fire sacrifices of melted butter. The hymns of the Atharvaveda, on the other hand, consist largely of spells meant for the magical application, while their religion is pronounced pantheism.
The Vedic beliefs on the other hand are mythological in nature and start from statements of the Rgveda to which the subsequent developments of the Vedic period are of sufficient importance in each case.
Cosmogonic Beliefs Judged by their fragmentary references, to the origin of the world, the poets of the Rgveda usually regarded it as having been mechanically produced like a building, the material being wood and heaven and earth being supported by earth. The agents in the construction are regularly either the gods in general or various individual gods. The last book of the Rgveda, however, contains a few hymns which represent others views. One of these (X -90), though among the latest of the period preserves a very primitive belief. It announces the origin of the world from the body of a primeval giant whom the gods sacrificed. His head became the sky, the navel the air, and his feet became the earth. From his various members, four castes were produced. This being called Purusa, or man, and interpreted pantheistically in the hymn itself as, "all this, both what has become and what shall be", reappears as the world-soul in the Atharvaveda and the Upanisads.
There are again two cosmogonic hymns of the Rgveda, which explain the origin of the universe, philosophically rather than mythologically as a kind of evolution of the existent (sat) from the non-existent (asat). In another hymn of the same type as a creator (dhita) is, after the evolution of the ocean through heat (tapas) introduced to produce in succession, sun and moon, heaven and earth besides air and ether. There is also a hymn (X.121) in which the heaven and the earth and the great woman are described as the creation of Hiranyagarbha, the golden egg who is said to have arisen in the beginning to be the one god above all gods and is finally involved as Prajapati, lord of all the created beings. It is to be noted here that in the cosmogonic hymns, the water is commonly thought as coming into the existence first. In the Atharvaveda the all-god appears as a creator under several new names.
The cosmogony of the Brahmanas requires the agency of the creator, Prajapati, who is not always the starting point. Sometimes the waters come rust and on them float the golden germ (Hiranya-garbhay) from which arises the spirit which produces the universe. The contradiction is due to the theories of the evolution and of creation being combined. One cosmogonic myth of the Brahmanas describes how the submerged earth was raised by a boar. The latter is post- Vedic mythology, developed into an incarnation of Visnu.
The heaven and earth are ordinarily regarded in the Rgveda as the parents of the gods in general. It is only very rarely that other gods are spoken of as the parents of the rest; the dawn is once said to be the mother of the gods and both Brahmanaspati and Soma are mentioned as their father. The cosmogonic hymns connect the origin of the gods chiefly with the element of water, but one of them describes the gods as having been born after the creation of the universe.
The Vedic beliefs regard the origin of man or the human race were somewhat fluctuating; the ultimate source of man was always thought to be divine. Agni, the god of fire, is at least once said to have begotten the race of man, and certain families of seers are regarded as independently descended through founders from the gods. Usually, however, the human race is traced to a first man, either Manu, or Yama, both of whom are the sons of Vivasvat or a Solar deity.
Nature of the Vedic Gods The Vedic society believed in a number of gods or the supernatural beings varying in character and power. They comprise of two main groups-on the one hand, gods who are almost exclusively benevolent and receive worship, while on the other hand are the demons who are quite hostile in nature and whose operations have to be counteracted with the help of the gods or ritual expedients. The divine power again may be classed as higher gods, whose power pervades the world and controls the great phenomena of nature; and as lesser divinities whose activities are restricted to a limited sphere or are conducted on a similar scale; for instance tutelary deities and else. The divine nature is further shared by men of days gone by, ancient heroes, who are associated with the deeds of the gods and ancestors, who live with the gods and receive worship like them. Finally at the bottom of the scale are many inanimate objects and implements which are deified being invoked and worshipped like the divine beings.
(a) The Higher Gods The gods are usually listed in the Rgveda and Atharvaveda, as well as the Brahmanas to be thirty-three in number, but there are occasional deviations or inconsistencies as regard to their belief or their number. Troops of deities, such as the sun gods are, of course, not regarded as included in that number. The thirty-three are in the Rgveda, which are divided into three groups of eleven distributed in earth, air and the heaven, the three divisions of the universe. These three groups now containing eight, eleven and twelve deities respectively appear in the Brahmanas under the names Vasus, Rudras and Adityas. The gods as have already been shown were believed to have had a beginning, but they were not thought to have all come into being at the same time; for the Rgveda refers occasionally to other gods and the Atharvaveda speaks of the gods as having existed before the rest. Certain deities, moreover, are described as the off springs of others. The Atharvaveda and the Brahmanas also expressly state that the gods were originally mortals, adding that they overcame death with the practice of austerity. The same aspect is highlighted in the Rgveda too, where the gods are said to have acquired immortality after drinking Soma.
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